Aust J Crop Sci. 19(02):152-160 (2025) | ISSN:1835-2707
https://doi.org/10.21475/ajcs.25.19.02.p212
Pumpkin (Cucurbita ssp.): A neglected and underutilized crop with potential for production in Africa
Jane Muthoni*1,2, Hussein Shimelis2
1Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization (KALRO), Kenya
2African Centre for Crop Improvement, University of KwaZulu-Natal, College of Agriculture, Engineering and Science, School of Agricultural, Earth and Environmental Sciences, Private Bag X01, Scottsxille 3209, Pietermaritzburg, South Africa
*Corresponding author: Jane Muthoni 
ORCID: 0000-0002-9450-1222
Abstract: The genus Cucurbita includes 20-27 species of which 5 are the most cultivated in the world. The 5 species are Cucurbita argyrosperma, Cucurbita ficifolia, Cucurbita maxima D (giant/tropical/African pumpkin), C. moschata D (butternut/winter squash) and C. pepo L. (Courgette/Zucchini). Cucurbita moschata D, C. pepo L and C. maxima D are the most cultivated species worldwide and have high production. This review paper discusses the 3 species of Cucurbita that are commonly grown worldwide. In addition, it looks at their production and utilization in some African countries. Cucurbita species are native to Central and South America and are distributed from United States to Argentina. They are warm-season annuals, thriving in hot and humid conditions. The term ‘pumpkin’ refers to the 5 species commonly cultivated globally. Pumpkins are grown in almost all arable regions of the world, from cool temperate to warm tropical zones. They are grown for their fruits, leaves, flowers and seeds. Asia is the largest producer of pumpkins followed by Europe with Africa coming a far third. China is the world’s largest producer accounting for more than 30% of global production. Pumpkin is highly nutritious; the leaves, fruits, flowers and seeds are health promoting food. Pumpkins are used to cure many diseases. The fruit is an excellent source of vitamin A which the body needs for proper growth, healthy eyes and protection from diseases. However, pumpkins are neglected and underutilized in Africa. They are considered poor man’s food and receive minimal attention from researchers and policy-makers. There is need to promote pumpkin production and utilization in Africa.
Keywords: Africa; Cucurbita ssp.; Production; Pumpkins.
Introduction
All members of cucurbitaceae family originated in Latin America especially Northern Mexico and parts of United States (OECD, 2016; Jeffrey, 1990) as well as the northern parts of South America. The cultivated species are now widely grown throughout tropical, subtropical and temperate regions of the world (Whitaker and Bemis, 1975), including Africa where they have become naturalized and are categorized among indigenous vegetables (Abukutsa-Onyango, 2007). The genus Cucurbita belong to the order Cucurbitales, subfamily Cucurbitoideae and family Cucurbitaceae, respectively (Jeffrey, 1990). The genus Cucurbita is divided into two groups according to the ecological characteristics and life cycle of the different cultivated species (OECD, 2016). Xerophytic species are perennial plants adapted to drought conditions and have tuberous storage roots. Mesophytic species are determinate (annual) or indeterminate (perennial) plants adapted to humid climates, they are short-lived and have fibrous roots. The genus Cucurbita includes 20-27 species (Esquinas-Alcazar and Gulick, 1983) of which 5 are the most cultivated in the world. These are Cucurbita argyrosperma, Cucurbita ficifolia, Cucurbita maxima D (giant/tropical/African pumpkin), C. moschata D (butternut/winter squash) and C. pepo L. (Courgette/Zucchini). These five belong to the group of mesophytic species (OECD, 2016; Gbemenou et al., 2022). Cucurbita moschata D, C. pepo L and C. maxima D are the most commonly cultivated species worldwide and have high production (Martins et al., 2015). Members of the genus Cucurbita are not closely related to other Cucurbitaceae genera (OECD, 2016). Cucurbita species are warm-season annuals, thriving in hot and humid conditions (Aruah et al., 2010). They are native to Central and South America (Uduwerella et al., 2021) and are distributed from United States to Argentina (Wu et al., 2007). Generally, C. moschata is the most widely cultivated Cucurbita in the tropics, where it is primarily grown on a small-scale basis for domestic consumption (Andres, 2004) while C. pepo is of high economic value in developed countries with temperate climates (Paris and Brown, 2005)
Cucurbita moschata Duch. ex Poir is the most heat-tolerant, widely grown, and common species cultivated in tropical Africa (Grubben and Chigumira-Ngwerume, 2004; Gwanama et al., 2000). In tropical Africa, it is primarily grown on small-scale basis for local consumption and its cultivation is mainly based on many landraces with a high degree of autogamy (Gwanama et al., 2000). Unlike C. pepo and C. maxima, C. moschata is best adapted to the warm tropical climates hence it is called ‘tropical pumpkin’ (OECD, 2016); it is more prominent in tropical areas in less-developed countries (Paris and Brown, 2005). Cultivars adapted to temperate conditions tend to be moderate in size with non-lignified rinds (Swanepoel, 2021). Cucurbita moschata is the most important and widely cultivated cucurbit in India, Africa, Latin America, southern Asia and the United States (Naik and Prasad, 2016); it is commonly produced on small-scale basis and for local consumption (Andres, 2004). Although the nativity of this species has not yet been confirmed, it most probably originated from Belize, Guatemala, Central Mexico, Gulf of Mexico, Northeast Mexico, Southeast Mexico, Southwest Mexico (KEW, 2021) and was domesticated in Colombia (Whitaker and Davis, 1962). Studies reported that C. moschata underwent two independent domestications: in Mexico and the northern South America (Merrick, 1990; Whitaker, 1974). These assertions were supported by linguistic evidence (Robinson and Decker-Walters, 1997). Studies by Filov (1966) reflected several centers of diversity of C. moschata such as Columbia, Japan, Mexico, Central America, the western United States, Florida, India and Asia Minor. Cucurbita moschata fruits are large and vary from globose to flatten in their shape. The peel is tough and strong, consequently, the fruit keeps well and is not easily damaged during transportation. It can be stored for more than 3 months under normal temperatures (Men et al., 2021). Cucurbita moschata is usually grown for consumption of its mature fruits which possess high-quality flesh (OECD, 2016).
Cucurbita maxima is considered the earliest Cucurbita species domesticated in South America and associated with human consumption for more than 12000 years (Castellanos-Morales et al., 2019). Like C. pepo, C. maxima is well adapted to warm-temperate and temperate regions. Studies show that C. maxima originated in the warm-temperate regions of Northeast Argentina, Northwest Argentina and Bolivia (KEW, 2021). Secondary centers of diversity include Bangladesh, Myanmar, India and the southern Appalachians of the United States (OECD, 2016). Cucurbita is Latin word for gourd and maxima is Latin for largest, because these plants can produce very large fruits. Cucurbita maxima is well named, as its fruits are the largest in the plant kingdom. Cucurbita maxima produces large fruits that can weigh between 4-35 kg; records show that Cucurbita maxima pumpkins exceeding 450 kg have been grown. The fruits are characteristically flattened resembling the typical pumpkin shape (Kiramana and Isutsa, 2017). In South America, C. maxima is grown for its immature and mature fruits, but elsewhere, it is almost always grown for the consumption of the mature fruit flesh, for ornament and, for consumption of the seeds.
Cucurbita pepo is the most widely grown species in the genus Cucurbita. It is the most important commercial species worldwide (Paris, 2001; OECD, 2016) and has high economic value in developed countries with temperate climates (Paris and Brown, 2005). Cucurbita pepo is planted in all countries of Africa on a limited scale, even though it is less tolerant of tropical conditions than C. moschata (Grubben and Chigumira-Ngwerume, 2004). In tropical Africa C. moschata and C. maxima are known to be more important than C. pepo (OECD, 2016). Cucurbita pepo most likely originated from Mexico and was also domesticated there (Chomicki et al., 2020). In North America, C. pepo is a morphologically and ecologically diverse species composed of genetically distinct groups of cultivars and free-living populations (i.e. self-sustaining wild populations), all of which are interfertile (OECD, 2016). It has been suggested that C. pepo was domesticated on at least two occasions and in two different regions of North America: in Mexico and in the United States (Decker, 1988, 1986). As with C. maxima and C. moschata, in addition to the diversity seen in the Americas, multiple centers of diversity exist for C. pepo, primarily as landraces, around the world (OECD, 2016). Cucurbita pepo is well adapted to all temperate regions and is grown mostly for the use of its immature fruits, also known as summer squash. In cool regions, it is also grown extensively for the culinary use of the flesh of its mature fruits, for consumption of the seeds or extraction of seed oil (Chomicki et al., 2020), and as ornaments. Fruits of C. pepo is smaller relative to those produced by other species and, it shows a broad diversity in fruit colour and size among different varieties. Fruits range in size from less than 100 g to over 20 kg, ranging in shape from round to extremely long to flat; can be with or without ribs, grooves, furrows, wrinkles, or warts; and can be green, yellow, or orange ranging in intensity and shading from almost black to almost white and possess patterns of striping, which is longitudinal, or bicolor, which is latitudinal. In the United States and Canada, C. pepo is a popular Halloween and Thanksgiving staple (Kumar et al., 2018). Cucurbita argyrosperma Huber (formerly known as C. mixta Pang) is native to warm lowland regions of Mexico. It is not widely cultivated but it is important in its native country, more for consumption of its seeds than for its fruit flesh. Studies have indicated that C. argyrosperma is the wild ancestor of C. moschata (Gwanama et al., 2000; Sanjur et al., 2002). Cucurbita ficifolia Bouché is commonly known as the fig-leaf gourd rather than as a squash or pumpkin. The precise location of its center of origin is still uncertain although some have proposed that it to be Central America or southern Mexico/Central America (OECD, 2016). Cucurbita ficifolia is grown in the cool, highland regions in low latitudes of the Americas. Although adapted to cooler temperatures, it is day length-sensitive and does not flower in the long days of summer of the mid-latitude regions. Cucurbita ficifolia has large, spreading vines with leaves that usually resemble those of fig leaves. It has less variation in fruit characteristics than the other cultivated species of the genus Cucurbita. The white, fibrous fruit flesh is most often used for making sweets or preserves.
The pumpkins
The term pumpkin refers to the five main species of genus Curcubita that are cultivated around the world (Ekanayaka et al., 2019). The word pumpkin originates from the word pepon, which in Greek means “large melon", something round and large (Kumar et al., 2017). The original meaning of the word “pumpkin” referred to an edible round or nearly round fruit while “squash” referred to an edible non-round fruit (Paris and Brown, 2005). In addition, immature fruit of any of the Cucurbita species are referred to as “summer squash” and mature fruit as “winter squash”, respectively. Summer squash consists of varieties such as vegetable marrow, zucchini, scallop, acorn, cocozelle yellow straightneck and yellow crookneck; they are harvested in the immature stage and boiled, baked, fried or otherwise processed and eaten (Oluoch, 2012). Most of these cultivars mature in 45 to 60 days (Oluoch, 2012). Winter squash includes butternut, buttercup, delicata, hubbard, kabocha, turban and spaghetti squash (Robinson and Decker-Walters, 1997); they are harvested when the fruits mature. Pumpkin (2n = 2x = 40) is a seasonal vegetable crop; most are day neutral and monoecious. Pumpkins are warm season crops that are sensitive to cool temperatures and are frost intolerant. For maximum production, they prefer temperatures ranging from 20 to 350 C with an optimum of 25-300 C, and should be free from freezing periods and high humid conditions (Ahmad and Khan, 2019). Fruits maturing when daily mean air temperatures are below 200 C have poor quality. At extremely high temperatures only male flowers may be formed, flowers may drop, fruits may get sunburned, and soft fruit at harvest with reduced shelf life. Soil temperature should be above 160 C at seed germination; the minimum soil temperature for good field germination is approximately 180 C and the maximum 300 C. Seed germinates poorly below 160 C and no germination takes place at temperatures below 100 C. Of the cultivated Cucurbita species, Cucurbita maxima is the most tolerant of low temperatures. It is cultivated in temperate and subtropical regions worldwide (OECD, 2016). It is primarily cultivated in regions with temperate climate, and very rarely in warm and damp regions (Robinson and Decker-Walters, 1997). Cucurbita moschata is the least tolerant of low temperatures, but is relatively drought tolerant. It is cultivated in subtropical and tropical regions worldwide, but can also be cultivated sporadically elsewhere (OECD, 2016). Cucurbita pepo can grow in a variety of ecological conditions; it tolerates altitudes ranging from 8-2300 meters above sea level. It grows best when day temperatures are between 240 C and 280 C and night temperatures between 160 C and 240 C, although it can tolerate monthly average day temperatures of 18-280 C. Many of the commercial cultivars of C. pepo are widely grown around the world, demonstrating the ability of varieties to adapt to different environments. Cucurbita pepo may be grown in temperate, subtropical and tropical regions worldwide (OECD, 2016). Cucurbita species prefer soils that are well-drained and fairly fertile with pH 6.0-6.5 (Ruwanthika et al., 2023) although they will tolerate both slightly acidic and slightly alkaline soils. Maximum yields are achieved on medium-textured soils with high water-holding capacity and good internal drainage. Although they can be grown on a wide range of soils, heavy clay soils are not recommended. A crop rotation cycle of 2-3 years between planting members from the Cucurbitaceae family is required when pathogen populations are very high. Maize, sorghum or legumes like cowpea and beans are good rotation crops.
Pumpkins have a good shelf-life; a whole fruit may keep up to 6 months before spoiling; mature pumpkin fruits when harvested can stay for up to eight months (Nakazibwe et al., 2019). The fruit is covered by an outer protective epidermis which is in turn typically covered by a natural waxy cuticle layer containing the polymer cutin (Lequeu et al., 2008). Once the outer covers are destroyed by bruising or slicing the fruit, water loss and eventual spoilage ensure; slicing the fruit drastically reduces shelf-life to 3-5 days (Kiharason and Isutsa., 2019). When harvesting, a long stem (peduncle) should be left on the pumpkins to enhance the shelf-life of the fruit (OECD, 2016; Oluoch, 2012). It was reported that many farmers in Zimbabwe store undamaged whole pumpkin fruit with the peduncle attached under the shade of the granary for periods ranging from 2 to 6 months; removal of the peduncle greatly reduced the storage period of the pumpkin fruit (Ndoro et al., 2007). In Zambia, the ripe fruit flesh is dried for longer preservation (Grubben and Chigumira-Ngwerume, 2004). It has been found that after harvesting pumpkin at the proper maturity stage under optimum temperature and humidity conditions, most pumpkins can store for up to 8 months (Carren, 2004). Storage duration depend on the harvesting process and the post-harvest handling practices. Pumpkins should be harvested when mature to allow for longer storage. They are often "cured" at 24-300 C and 80% high relative humidity (RH) for 5 to 10 days before long-term storage to heal any wounds that may occur during harvesting (Oluoch, 2012). Curing heals wounds, helps ripen immature fruit, enhances colour, and ensures a longer post-harvest life (OECD, 2016). After curing, the temperature and relative humidity should be reduced to 10-130 C and 50-75%, respectively. Another way of curing is by leaving the fruits in the field in warm and dry conditions for ten days to two weeks or by keeping them inside at room temperature for a month (OMAFRA, 2011). Pumpkin and squash are chilling-sensitive and should not be stored below 100 C (Oluoch, 2012). The most common way of preserving pumpkins in Nigeria is by drying. After drying, it can be stored for years without significant loss of nutrients (Tunde-Akintunde and Ogunlakin, 2013). It has been reported that pumpkin shreds, granulated powder and fine powder as well as pumpkin seed powder are used as nutritional supplements in instant and ready to cook food mixes in India (Swanepoel, 2021). Pumpkin powder has a long shelf life and is used as a supplement in cereal flours in the formulation of bakery, snacks, and confectioneries in numerous countries such as Korea, Poland, Iraq, China, Russia, and India (Sharma and Lakhawat, 2017).
Production of pumpkins
Pumpkins are grown in almost all continents, except Antarctica; they are grown in almost all arable regions of the world, from cool temperate to warm tropical zones. Pumpkin production globally increased from 6.23 million tonnes in 1973 to 22.8 million tonnes in 2022 growing at an average annual rate of 2.77% (World Data Atlas, 2024). In 2022, Asia led the pack producing 11.52 million tonnes followed by Europe (4.83 million tonnes), Africa (2.72 million tonnes), South America (1.01 million tonnes) and Oceania (0.23 million tonnes) (World Data Atlas, 2024). China is
Figure 1. Major pumpkin producing countries globally in 2022. Source: World Data Atlas, 2024.
Figure 2. Major pumpkin producing countries globally in 2021. Source: Mapsofworld.com, 2024.
the world’s largest producer of pumpkins (Yang et al., 2016; Zhao et al., 2009); in 2022, the country produced 7.38 million tonnes accounting for 32.34% of the world's production. It was followed by Ukraine, Russian Federation, the United States of America, and Spain in the top five. These top five countries accounted for 49.52% of the world’s production (World Data Atlas, 2024, Figure 1). In 2021, China was still the largest producer of pumpkins, accounting for more than half of the world’s production (Figure 2; Mapsofworld.com, 2024). In 2020, China contributed 27% of the total global output (FAOSTAT, 2022; Figure 3). Pumpkins are one of the most important gourd vegetables in China and they occupy the ninth largest acreage among vegetables in China. The three main species, Cucurbita moschata, Cucurbita maxima, and C. pepo are grown in China (Chu et al., 2007) although they mainly cultivate C. moschata and C. maxima and pay less attention towards the C. pepo (Zhou et al., 2017). Cultivars such as Miben (Cucurbita moschata), Hongli (Cucurbita maxima), Lvli (Cucurbita maxima) and Xihulu (Cucurbita pepo) are the principal pumpkin varieties in the China markets (Zhao et al., 2015). Because of its high starch content and sweet taste, more C. maxima species were introduced into the country from abroad since the early 1990s, and its acreage has been expanding each year. However, there is still a problem of low yield in the extensive cultivation of this species (Jia et al., 2007; Liu et al., 2008). In addition, the yield and quality of C. maxima fruits are susceptible to early spring frost damage, powdery mildew, and different cultivation conditions (Chen et al., 2019). Researchers have been developing cold-resistant varieties for production in the cold temperate regions (Chen et al., 2019). In Sri Lanka, varieties of both C. maxima and C. moschata are cultivated (Ekanayaka et al., 2019).
In Africa, pumpkin production is very low compared with other continents (Gbemenou et al., 2022). Pumpkins are generally underutilized in Africa despite their food advantages; pumpkins can help tackle malnutrition that ravages most poor Africans. Algeria, Egypt, Malawi, South Africa, Nigeria, Kenya, Cameroon, Congo and Niger are among the African countries that produce pumpkins (Gbemenou et al., 2022). In 2022, the countries that produced the highest volumes of pumpkins in Africa were Algeria, Malawi and Egypt; together they comprised 45% of the total continental production (Mapsofworld.com, 2024). In recent years, there have been a steady increase in pumpkin production in Africa (Figure 4). Northern Africa is the major pumpkin producing region in Africa (Figure 5). In Egypt, C. pepo is the most popular and is cultivated to a greater extent than C. moschata and C. maxima (Hashash et al., 2017). It is cultivated all the year round, outdoor during summer and indoor, either in green houses or in tunnels, during winter. It is mostly cultivated for domestic consumption where the fruit flesh is cooked (Mady, 2009). In Algeria, C. pepo has been widely cultivated in several areas for many decades and it is one of the major vegetable crops (Benalia et al., 2015). Morocco is a major producer of pumpkins which are mostly exported to the UK. By the end of January 2023, pumpkin exports from Morocco to the UK reached an impressive 11,000 tonnes; from January 2022 to January 2023, Morocco's exports accounted for a significant 13% share of the UK pumpkin market, establishing the country as the third-largest supplier after Spain and Portugal, respectively (Morocco World News, 2024). Pumpkins have significant economic importance in Tunisia; however, their production is based on local accessions and landraces (Chikh-Rouhou et al., 2019). Roasted pumpkin seeds are a popular snack in many African countries, especially in Tunisia (Rezig et al., 2012).
Pumpkin is one of the fruit vegetables consumed and relished by most local people in the sub-Saharan Africa (Aruah et al., 2011). Pumpkins grow well in most African countries such as Kenya, Malawi, Nigeria, South Africa, Uganda, Zambia and Zimbabwe (Grubben and Chigumira-Ngwerume, 2004). However, pumpkins have been reported as lacking commercial importance in the sub-Saharan Africa countries such as Nigeria and Kenya (Kiramana and Isutsa, 2017; Aruah et al., 2011). Pumpkin value chains in sub-Saharan African countries such as Uganda, Kenya, South Africa, Malawi and Mozambique have neither received much attention from policymakers nor been widely promoted as a viable enterprise (Ndegwa, 2016). As such, investment in the pumpkin value chains remain low. The potential of pumpkins remains untapped due to several reasons, such limited knowledge and awareness of its nutritional benefits, and lack of catalytic finance and investment needed to transform pumpkin production and processing into a highly profitable industry. The limited investment in this value chain negatively affects the level of research and innovation, extension services provision as well as infrastructural and capacity development in the sector (UAA, 2018).
Pumpkin is one of the high-potential yet untapped vegetables in East Africa. The lower production of pumpkin in the East African region compared to the other parts of the world could be due to the over-reliance of the region on some staple crops like cassava, maize, sorghum, millet (Nakazibwe et al., 2019). In addition, pumpkin production for commercial purposes is eclipsed by other mostly exotic vegetables. Very little has been done to commercialize pumpkin (Isutsa and Mwaura, 2017; Muendo and Tschirley, 2004) even though it has excellent nutritional value, a long shelf life, is relatively easy to grow and can do well in most agroecologies in East Africa. In East Africa, research on traditional crops such as pumpkins is inadequate compared to most mainstream and exotic crops (Hamisy et al., 2002). This is partly because few people use traditional crops as staple foods (Republic of Kenya, 2003; Hamisy et al., 2002). Like other traditional crops, pumpkin production is limited although the crop has potential to improve food security, nutritional status and livelihoods of rural households (Kiharason et al., 2017; Ondigi et al., 2008). In the Lake Victoria basin in Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania, Ondigi et al. (2008) found that pumpkins were mainly planted for domestic consumption and only the surplus could be sold. They were mostly grown by low-income members of the community who mainly utilize the leaves as vegetables and occasionally consume the fruit when cooked.
Pumpkin is one of Uganda’s resilient traditional crops adapted to diverse climatic conditions. Its economic importance is attributed to its food security, nutritional and health/ medicinal attributes (UAA, 2018). In Uganda, the main districts that grow pumpkins for commercial and household consumption include Kabale, Jinja, Mbale, Mityana, Mubende, Luwero, Nakaseke and Kabarole (Ondigi et al., 2008). In Uganda, most households use pumpkin leaves as vegetables while seeds are used as a sauce and snack (Musinguzi et al., 2006). A recent study showed that pumpkins are grown by 85.7% of respondent farmers from 28 districts in nine sub-regions of Uganda (Masika et al., 2022); most of the growers were women (65.7%). Majority of the pumpkin farmers are women (UAA, 2018). A study conducted in five agro-ecological zones of Uganda showed that male pumpkin farmers (52.8%) were slightly more than the female respondents (47.2%) (Nakazibwe et al. (2019). They also found that most of the respondents (66.7%) cultivate pumpkin on small scale basis and in most cases (63.9%) pumpkin is intercropped. Although pumpkins were mainly grown for domestic consumption previously in Uganda, there has been a change and in recent times, they are also being grown as a source of income (Nakazibwe et al., 2019; UAA, 2018). Most pumpkin fruits produced in Uganda are exported to neigbouring countries with Kenya being the biggest trading partner accounting for about 92% of the pumpkin exports by volume. Other trading partners are Tanzania (25%), South Sudan (25%), Rwanda (25%) and Sudan (16.67%). Pumpkin processing in Uganda is slowly emerging; the most processed products are roasted pumpkin seeds, pumpkin flour, dried pumpkin seed and powdered pumpkin leaves. There have been efforts to boost pumpkin production in Uganda; between 2020 and 2023, Pumpkins in Africa project (the Pumpkin Project) was undertaken in Uganda by East-West Seed Knowledge Transfer Foundation (EWS-KT) (East-West Seed Knowledge Transfer, 2021). The objective of the Pumpkin Project was to accelerate the growth of the pumpkin sector in Africa. The goal was to develop a hub of expertise and knowledge in pumpkin production in Uganda, which can then drive growth in other East African countries, and even in West Africa if the potential is there. The emphasis was on quality seeds and good agricultural practices.
In Kenya, pumpkins play an important role in the agricultural sector due to their versatility, serving a wide range of purposes including food consumption, medicinal applications, and livestock feed. Pumpkins are mainly grown as a subsistence crop in a wide range of agro-ecological zones and are well adapted to the local conditions in Kenya. In most regions of Kenya, majority of pumpkin growers are low-income farmers who cultivate it mainly for domestic consumption and only the surplus is sold locally (Ondigi et al., 2008, Nyamwamu et al., 2023). However, pumpkins are listed among the neglected and underutilised crops (Nyabera et al., 2019); as such, they remain underutilized in Kenya. Pumpkin receives minimal attention from researchers and government policymakers. The crop is underdeveloped with low production; it is mostly produced by smallholder farmers in marginal areas producing less than the potential of 20 tonnes per hectare (HCDA, 2013). Previous research showed that pumpkin productivity by smallholder farmers in Eastern and Central Kenya regions was below the national average of 20 tons per hectare (Ndegwa, 2016). A previous study found married men to be the main adopters of butternut squash (C. moschata) farming in Suba district in Kenya (Isaboke et al., 2012). This could be due to economic consideration given that butternut squash (Cucurbita moschata) is an emerging commercial crop in Kenya with ready market and high nutritional value. This observation is like those obtained by Ezin et al. (2021) in Benin. In recent times, the importance of pumpkin as an important food crop in Kenya is increasingly being recognized mainly due to increased awareness about its nutritional value and its ease of cultivation in several agro-ecological zones of the country. Traditionally considered a “poor man’s food”, pumpkin is now becoming a highly priced commodity in urban and peri-urban areas in Kenya (Ngugi et al., 2007). It is becoming a particularly important crop in most semi-arid areas of Kenya providing food when other crops are unable to thrive. In the face of changing climatic conditions, pumpkin production is therefore being promoted due to its ability to adapt to increasingly stressful growth environment. Butternut squash (Cucurbita moschata) has been promoted for production and consumption as a nutritious crop especially for children and as a security crop for food insecure families. Consequently, it is emerging as an economically important crop with ready market and high nutritional value (Isaboke et al., 2012). Despite these positive attributes of pumpkin and the growing commercial interest, its yield is still very low in Kenya. Some of the main contributing factors include less emphasis on crop improvement and protection against pests and diseases (Gotor and Irungu, 2010), negative perception associating pumpkins with food for primitive and poor households (Chweya, 1997) and change in food habits from traditional to exotic vegetables; especially among the youth who make a huge percentage of the population. Consequently, few households in Kenya eat pumpkins regularly, leading to low demand. There is also lack of good quality varieties, poor crop management, threats of pests and diseases, post-harvest losses and high transport costs (Tanui, 2023).
Cucurbits are widely grown in Southern Africa (Chigwe and Saka, 1994) for their leafy vegetables, fruits, flowers and seeds that are consumed. The leafy vegetables, fruits and flowers are simply boiled and eaten (Chigwe and Saka, 1994) while the seeds can be roasted as a snack and made into a paste like peanut butter. Pumpkin leaves are widely consumed as a leading leafy vegetable during the rainy season; in Zambia, 40% of the households use pumpkin leaves as relish daily during the rainy season (Oluoch, 2012). In most of Southern Africa, pumpkin production is from seeds of landraces that have been maintained by farmers over long periods of time (Gwanama et al., 2000, Chigwe and Saka, 1994).
In Zimbabwe, pumpkin leaves are one of the most preferred traditional leafy vegetables (Maroyi, 2011; Ndoro et al., 2007). They were found to be the third most important vegetable in Mashonaland West Province and were also quite important in Mashonaland East Province of Zimbabwe (Jackson, 1997). A previous study showed that pumpkin leaves were consumed 3.9 times a week during the rainy season in Mashonaland East Province of Zimbabwe (Van der Sluijer et al., 1997). Ndoro et al. (2007), established that consumption frequency of pumpkin leaves when in season ranged from 2 to 7 times a week with a mean of 3.94. They also found that most farmers (85%) intercropped pumpkins with maize and other crops probably because of lack of land and labour in most rural areas in Zimbabwe. In addition, they found that insect pests and diseases were the biggest production constraints (60.7%) while gluts in the market were a major marketing issue (52.5%) during periods of abundance. Most farmers use retained seed (71.9%) for plant in the next season. Most of the farmers selected landraces to grow based on size of the fruit (38.6%), fast growth (28.8%) and good taste/ quality (19.7%) (Ndoro et al., 2007).
In South Africa, pumpkins and squash (Cucurbita maxima, C. pepo and C. moschata) are widely cultivated for their fruit and by some farmers, for the leaves (Jansen van Rensburg et al., 2007). Pumpkin leaves are very popular leafy vegetables in South Africa and one of the few African leafy vegetables that are cultivated. When harvested as a leafy vegetable, the leaves, flowers and young fruit are picked and cooked. The roasted seed is also a very popular snack (Vorster et al., 2002; Hart and Vorster, 2006). Cucurbita pepo landraces are widely grown and used as a traditional leafy vegetable (Faber et al., 2010). In a study carried out in the Northern KwaZulu-Natal, seven distinct landraces of C. argyrosperma, C. maxima and C. pepo were identified by their local (isiZulu) names (Ntuli et al., 2016); the C. pepo had the
Figure 3. Major pumpkin producing countries globally in 2020. Source: FAOSTAT, 2022.
Figure 4. Pumpkin production in Africa in recent times. Source: FAOSTAT, 2024.
highest number of landraces. Communities of northern KwaZulu-Natal consume leafy shoot tips, flowers, young and mature fruits, and seeds of Cucurbita landraces. A study found that pumpkin fruit (64.2%), is the most cultivated indigenous vegetable in the North West Province of South Africa followed by bean-leaves (57.8%) and then pumpkin leaves (44.1%) (Lekunze, 2014). However, amaranths (90.8%), followed by cowpea-leaves (87.5%) and pumpkin-leaves (56%) are the most harvested indigenous vegetables. Pumpkin leaves are mostly harvested from dump areas, where they grow as wild vegetables. This is because those who cultivate pumpkins mostly do so for the fruits and harvesting of the leaves reduces fruit yields. In addition, he found that pumpkin-fruit, pumpkin-leaves and bean-leaves are the most marketed indigenous vegetables, in that order. Pumpkin-fruits have a fairly high demand; pumpkin leaves production is hence secondary. He also found that majority of participants involved in indigenous vegetables production and marketing are elderly women (Lekunze, 2014).
In Nigeria, C. moschata, C. maxima, and C. pepo are cultivated (Agbagwa and Ndukwu, 2004). Cucurbita moschata, is cultivated in northern Nigeria for the fruits; in southern part of the country, it is cultivated for both the leaves and fruits (Okoli, 1984; Ndukwu and Okoli, 1992). Pumpkin leaves constitute an important vegetable. In some parts of eastern Nigeria, the leaves of C. moschata are wrapped around fresh cornmeal and winged termites, cooked and then eaten as a delicacy, mostly by women and children (Okoli, 1984). Cucurbita pepo and C. maxima are cultivated in the northern parts of Nigeria where they constitute an important part of the local diet. They are cooked and the fruit pulp is eaten alone, with yam/potato or used in making palatable stew. The fruit pulp may sometimes be eaten raw without cooking. The seeds are often fried and eaten by children (Agbagwa and Ndukwu, 2004). Cucurbita maxima is mainly cultivated for its leaves, fruits and seeds (Mohammed et al., 2014). However, pumpkin is one of the underutilized crops in Nigeria. It is cultivated on small scale basis for subsistence use; the average yields are low and the crop has virtually no
Figure 5. Regional production of pumpkin in Africa. Source: FAOSTAT, 2024
commercial importance (Okoronkwo and Okoli, 2021). The crop is regarded as traditional food mainly for the low-income earners. It has not benefited from the same level of research attention given to other vegetable crops like cucumber, fluted pumpkin and melon, among others (Aruah et al., 2011). Farmers also receive inadequate education on pumpkin production from the agricultural extension agents. In addition, the problem of pests and diseases may be contributing to low pumpkin yields even further (Girei et al., 2017).
In Cameroon, both C. moschata and C. maxima are grown. Pumpkin is mainly cultivated by women (90%) (Mbogne et al., 2015); similar observations have been reported in Ivory Coast (Irié et al., 2003). According to Mbogne et al. (2015) the choice of pumpkin morphotypes grown by farmers in Cameroon is based on the organoleptic characteristics of the fruits, fruit texture, leaf size and fruit yield, among others. Priori et al. (2018) reported that commercialization of C. maxima fruit for consumption is related to the fresh matter (size and weight of the fruit), a characteristic of quality that is essential for the consumer market. Mbogne et al. (2015) indicated that in Cameroon, most pumpkins are grown in monoculture (80%) while mixed cropping (20%) was generally done with groundnut, maize, cassava, soybean and yam. Cucurbita moschata is the most cultivated species (up to 90%) in Cameroon (Mbogne et al. (2015). This corroborates the findings of Gwanama et al. (2000) who showed that C. moschata is one of the most cultivated vegetables in tropical Africa. This pumpkin species seems to be hardier and sweeter. In Cameroon and other parts of central and west Africa C. moschata is grown for the seeds. The seeds are first roasted, the shells removed, and naked seeds are then squashed/pounded into a paste and consumed with the main dish. Roasted seeds are also salted and eaten as a snack.
In Benin, pumpkins are underutilized crops. Little information is available on the uses, conservation and commercialization of the crop (Ezin et al., 2021). A study showed that men (53%) were the main producers of pumpkin while 47% of the women are interested in its production (Ezin et al., 2021). Pumpkin is not included in Benin's agricultural policy despite being an extraordinary vegetable with the potential to be used as a medicinal as well as a nutritious multifunctional food (Gbemenou et al., 2022).
Utilization of pumpkins
Most parts of the pumpkin are useful: the leaves, fruits (immature and mature), male flowers, tips of the vines and seeds of pumpkins are all consumed as food (Fu et al., 2006). Leaves and growing tips are consumed as a vegetable in Africa and Mexico, while in Italy, both male and female flowers are used in soups and other foods (Andres, 2004). In Latin America, flowers are consumed as vegetables (Merrick 1992; Nee 1990). The vines and fruits are used as fodder for domestic animals (Noguera, 2002). In parts of America, Europe and Asia pumpkins are cultivated on large scale for animal feed (Nyabera et al., 2019). Pumpkin is also used as raw product for agro-industrial processing for the production of powder as a natural colouring agent for pasta and flour (Dhiman et al., 2017). The fruit is also used in the food industry as an ingredient of pastries, baked goods, sweets, and baby food (Kim et al., 2012). In recent years, consumption of pumpkin seeds, which are good sources of protein and vegetable oils, has increased significantly. The oil is cholesterol-free and used for cooking, soap making and as domestic and industrial lubricants (Lawal, 2009). In Austria and some countries of Eastern Europe, pumpkins are grown primarily for the production of seeds that can be used for extraction of salad oil (Murkovic and Pfannhauser, 2000); the oil is usually exported to other countries for income generation (Nyabera et al., 2019). Pumpkin seed oil, also known as pepita oil can be a substitute of conventional edible oils currently in use (Sharmin et al., 2022). Although pumpkin seed oil is not produced commercially to a large extent, it is consumed as salad oil, soup ingredient and minced meat seasoning or frying oil in some countries like Austria, Slovenia and Hungary (Türkmen et al., 2017).
In Africa, cultivation of pumpkins is done by small scale farmers mostly for domestic consumption, and less often for commercial purposes (Nyabera et al., 2019). The pumpkins are used as food and vegetables for human consumption and, are both a commercial and home garden crop (Oluoch, 2012). In most cases, pumpkin is regarded as a poor man’s food and cultivated mainly for its fruits and leaves; the seeds are generally thrown away as waste or preserved for planting later (Ndegwa, 2016; Karanja et al., 2014). The most important pumpkin product in most African countries is the mature fruit which is cooked and the flesh eaten (Oluoch, 2012). In Cameroon and other parts of central and west Africa Cucurbita moschata is grown for the seeds. The seeds are first roasted, the shells removed, and pound into a paste and consumed with the main dish; roasted seeds are also salted and eaten as a snack (Oluoch, 2012). Pumpkin seeds are consumed directly as a snack in many cultures throughout the world; they are especially popular in Arab countries after salting and roasting (Al-Khalifa, 1996; Benalia et al., 2015). The pumpkin seeds are also used as additives to some food dishes (Alfawaz, 2004). In Egypt, pumpkin seeds are the alternative to the western popcorn as they are commonly eaten for leisure as a part of the Egyptian lifestyle (Abdel-Rahman, 2006).
Conclusion
Pumpkins (Cucurbita ssp.) are highly nutritive, easy to grow and have long shelf life. They are warm-season annuals grown for their fruits, leaves, flowers and seeds. They are grown in almost all arable regions of the world, from cool temperate zones to the warm tropics. They can do well in diverse ecologies and soil types. Asia is the largest producer of pumpkins followed by Europe with Africa coming a far third. China is the world’s largest producer accounting for more than 30% of global production. In Africa, pumpkins are neglected and underutilized. They are mostly produced by small scale farmers for subsistence use and are rarely commercialized. Pumpkin production and utilization in Africa should be promoted to enhance food and nutrition security in the continent.
References
Abdel-Rahman MK (2006) Effect of pumpkin seed (Cucurbita pepo L) diets on benign prostatichyperplasia (BPH): Chemical and morphometric evaluation in rats. World J Chemistry. 1 (1):33-40.
Abukutsa-Onyango M (2007) The diversity of cultivated African leafy vegetables in three communities in western Kenya. African Journal of Food Agriculture Nutrition and Development. 7(3):1-15.
Agbagwa IO, Ndukwu BC (2004) The value of morpho-anatomical features in the systematics of Cucurbita L. (Cucurbitaceae) species in Nigeria. African Journal of Biotechnology. 3 (10): 541-546.
Ahmad G, Khan AA (2019) Pumpkin: Horticultural importance and its roles in various forms: A review. International Journal of Horticulture and Agriculture. 4(1): 1–6.
Alfawaz MA (2004) Chemical composition and oil characteristics of pumpkin (Cucurbita maxima) seed kernels. Food Sci Agric Res. 129: 5-18.
Al-Khalifa AS (1996) Physicochemical characteristics, fatty acid composition and lipoxygenase activity of crude pumpkin and melon seed oil. J Agric Food Chem. 44: 964-966.
Andres TC (2004) Diversity in tropical pumpkin (Cucurbita moschata): Cultivar origin and history.p. 113-118. In A. Lebeda and H.S. Paris (ed.) Proceedings of Cucurbitaceae, 8th EUCARPIA Meeting on Cucurbit Genetics and Breeding, Olomouc, Czech Republic. 12-17 July 2004.
Aruah CB, Uguru MI, Oyiga BC (2011) Nutritional evaluation of some Nigerian pumpkins (Cucurbita spp.). Fruit, Vegetable and Cereal Science and Biotechnology. 5 (2): 64-71.
Aruah CB, Uguru MI, Oyiga BC (2010) Variations among some Nigerian Cucurbita landraces. African Journal of Plant Science. 4 (10): 374-386
Benalia M, Djeridane A, Gourine N, Nia S, Ajandouz E, Yousfi M (2015) Fatty acid profile, tocopherols content and antioxidant activity of Algerian pumpkin seeds oil (Cucurbita pepo L). Mediterranean Journal of Nutrition and Metabolism. 8: 9–25.
Carren P (2004) Postharvest handling technical series: postharvest care and market preparation. Journal of Crops, Fisheries and Livestock. 4(1): 54-60.
Castellanos-Morales G, Ruiz-Mondragón KY, Hernández-Rosales HS, Sánchez-De LV, Gámez N, Aguirre-Planter E, Montes-Hernández S, Lira-Saade R, Eguiarte LE (2019) Tracing back the origin of pumpkins (Cucurbita pepo spp. pepo L.) in Mexico. Proceedings of the Royal Society Biological Sciences. 40: 286-290.
Chen Y, Zhou X, Lin Y, Zhang Y (2019) A New variety of cold-resistant and early maturing Cucurbita maxima ‘Jianbao’. Hortscience. 54(10):1860–1863.
Chigwe CFB, Saka VW (1994) Collection and characterization of Malawi pumpkin germplasm. Zim J Agric Res. 32(2): 139-149.
Chikh-Rouhou H, Fhima I, Khechine D, Sta-Baba R (2019) Diversity among pumpkin landraces (Cucurbita spp.) grown in Tunisia using fruit and seed quantitative traits. p. 578-581. In Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on Sustainable Agriculture and Environment. October 3-5 2019. City of Konya, Turkey.
Chomicki G, Schaefer H, Renner SS (2020) Origin and domestication of Cucurbitaceae crops: insights from phylogenies, genomics and archaeology. New Phytologist. 226: 1240–1255.
Chu P, Xiang C, Zhang C, Liu C (2007) Genetic diversity of Cucurbita moschata genotypes revealed by RAPD markers and agronomic traits. J Nucl Agric Sci. 21:441–446.
Chweya JA (1997) Genetic enhancement of indigenous vegetables in Kenya. p. 90-99. In L. Guarino (ed.) Proceedings of IPGRI International workshop on Genetic Resources of Traditional Vegetables in Africa: Conservation and Use. 29-31 August, 1995, ICRAF Hq, Nairobi, Kenya. Institute of Plant Genetic and Crop Plant research. Gatesleben/IPGRI, Rome, Italy.
Decker DS (1988) Origin(s), evolution, and systematics of Cucurbita pepo. Economic Botany. 42 (1): 4-15.
Decker DS (1986) A biosystematic study of Cucurbita pepo. Ph.D. Thesis, Texas A&M University, College Station.
Dhiman AK, Negi V, Attri S, Ramachandran P (2017) Development and standardization of instant food mixes from dehydrated pumpkin and pumpkin seed powder (Cucurbita moschata Duch ex Pior.). International Journal of Bio-resource and Stress Management. 8(2): 213-219.
East-West Seed Knowledge Transfer (2021) Starting a Pumpkin Farming Trend. Available at https://www.ews-kt.com/starting-a-pumpkin-farming-trend/
Ekanayaka EMMM, Chandrasekara BSG, Balasooriya BANK (2019) Evaluation of exotic pumpkin hybrids with local pumpkin varieties in the intermediate low country 1 (IL1) of Sri Lanka. Proceedings of the Open University Research Sessions (OURS). May 2019.
Esquinas-Alcazar JT, Gulick P (1983) Genetic resources of Cucurbitaceae: A global report. IBPGR Secretariat.
Ezin V, Gbemenou UH, Sanni GBTA, Ahanchede A (2021) Ethnobotanical study of pumpkin (Cucurbita moschata Duchesne) landraces in Benin. CABI Agric Biosci. 2:35.
Faber M, Oelofse A, van Jaarsveld PJ, Wenhold FAM, Jansen van Rensburg WS (2010) African leafy vegetables consumed by households in the Limpopo and KwaZulu-Natal Provinces in South Africa. South African Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 23(1):30–38.
FAOSTAT (2022) The rank of the world’s biggest producers of pumpkins, squash and gourds. Available at: https://scienceagri.com/10-worlds-biggest-producers-of-pumpkins-squash-and-gourds/
FAOSTAT (2024) Crops and livestock products. Available at https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QCL
Filov AI (1966) Ekologija i klassifikatzija tykuy, Bjulleten Glavnogo Botaniceskogo Sada. 63: 33-41. (in Russian).
Fu C, Shi H, Li Q (2006) A review on pharmacological activities and utilization technologies of pumpkin. Plant Foods for Human Nutrition. 61(2):73-80.
Gbemenou UH, Ezin V, Ahanchede A (2022) Current state of knowledge on the potential and production of Cucurbita moschata (pumpkin) in Africa: A review. African Journal of Plant Science. 16(1): 8-21.
Girei AA, Haruna U, Osazuwa VN (2017) Analysis of profitability of pumpkin (Cucurbita spp) production in central agricultural zone of Nasarawa State, Nigeria. Asian Research Journal of Agriculture. 3(1): 1-9.
Gotor E, Irungu C (2010) The impact of Bioversity International’s African leafy vegetables programme in Kenya. Impact Assessment and Project Appraisal. 28(1):41-55.
Grubben GJH, Chigumira-Ngwerume F (2004) Cucurbita moschata Duch. In G.J.H. Grubben and O.A. Denton (ed.) PROTA 2: Vegetables/Legumes. [CD-Rom]. PROTA, Wageningen, Netherlands.
Gwanama C, Labuschagne M, Botha A (2000) Analysis of genetic variation in Cucurbita moschata by random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) markers. Euphytica. 113(1):19-24.
Hamisy WC, Makundi AH, Marandu D, Nkya MJ (2002) Evaluation of five accessions of Cucurbita maxima collected from different ecological zones in Tanzania. p. 6 – 10. In The Second International Workshop on Plant Genetic Resources and Biotechnology Report, Arusha, Tanzania.
Hart TGB, Vorster HJ (2006) Indigenous knowledge on the South African landscape – Potentials for agricultural development. Urban, Rural and Economic Development Programme. Occasional paper No 1. HSRC Press, Cape Town, South Africa. 52 pp.
Hashash MM, El-Sayed M, Abdel-Hady A, Morsi E (2017) Nutritional potential, mineral composition and antioxidant activity squash (Cucurbita pepo L.) fruits grown in Egypt. European Journal of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences. 4(3): 5–12.
HCDA (2013) National Horticulture Validated Report 2013. Horticultural Crops Development Authority (HCDA): Nairobi, 2013.
Irié A, Zoro B, Koffi K, Djè Y (2003) Caractérisation botanique et agronomique de trois espèces de cucurbites consommées en sauce en Afrique de l’Ouest: Citrullus sp., Cucumeropsis mannii Naudin et Lagenaria siceraria (Molina). Standl Biotechnol. Agron Soc Environ. 7 (3-4): 189-199.
Isaboke HN, Mshenga P, Mutai BK, Saidi M (2012) Determinants of adoption of butternut squash (Cucurbita moschata) farming among small-holders in Suba district, Kenya. Research Application Summary. 1505-1510.
Isutsa DK, Mwaura MM (2017) Effects of irrigation rate and leaf harvest intensity on multi-purpose pumpkin (Cucurbita moschata Duch.) growth and quality. International Journal of Development and Sustainability. 6(9): 1121-1141.
Jackson JE (1997) Vegetable crop production in the communal areas in Mashonaland: Results of a Survey in 1988. In J.E. Jackson, A.D. Turner and M.C. Matanda (ed.) Smallholder Horticulture in Zimbabwe. University of Zimbabwe Publication, Harare.
Jansen van Rensburg W, Voster IHJ, Van Zijl JJB, Venter SL (2007) Conservation of African leafy aegetables in South Africa. African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development. 7(4).
Jeffrey C (1990) Systematic of the Cucurbitaceae. p. 3-9. In D.M. Bates, R.W. Robinson, and C. Jeffrey (ed.) Biology and Utilization of the Cucurbitaceae, Cornel University Press, Ithaca.
Jia C, Li H, Qu G, Zhang F (2007) A new pumpkin F1 hybrid ‘Duanmanjingl€uli’. China Veg. 5:31–33.
Karanja JK, Mugendi BJ, Khamis FM, Muchugi AN (2014) Nutritional evaluation of some Kenyan pumpkins (Cucurbita spp.). International Journal of Agriculture and Forestry. 4(3): 195-200.
KEW (2021) Plants of the World Online. Available at: https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:30000781 -2.
Kiharason JW, Isutsa DK, (2019) Marketability of value-added pumpkin (Cucurbita moschata Duch.) fruit in a representative peri-urban Kenyan market. International Journal of Food Science and Biotechnology. 4 (1): 7-13.
Kiharason JW, Isutsa DK, Ngoda PN (2017) Nutritive value of bakery products from wheat and pumpkin composite flour. Global Journal of Biosciences and Biotechnology 6(1): 96-102.
Kim MY, Kim EJ, Kim YN, Choi C, Lee BH (2012) Comparison of the chemical compositions and nutritive values of various pumpkin (Cucurbitaceae) species and parts. Nutr Res Pract. 6: 21–27.
Kiramana JK, Isutsa DK, (2017) Documentation of indigenous traditional knowledge determining cultivation and utilization of pumpkins in Kenya. Journal of Environmental Sustainability Advancement Research. 3: 17-31.
Kumar V, Mishra DP, Yadav CG, Yadav S, Kumar S (2018) Determining relationships between yield and biochemical traits in pumpkin. The Pharma Innovation Journal. 7(1): 14-18.
Kumar V, Mishra DP, Yadav GC, Dwivedi DK (2017) Genetic diversity assessment for morphological, yield and biochemical traits in genotypes of pumpkin. Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry. 6(3): 14-18.
Lekunze JN (2014) Market analysis of pumpkin leaves: An indigenous vegetable in North West Province, South Africa. J Hum Ecol. 48(1): 61-71.
Lequeu J, Fanconnier ML, Chammai A, Bronner R, Blee E (2008) Formation of plant cuticle: Evidence of the occurrence of the peroxygenase pathway. Plant J. 36: 155-164.
Liu Y, Lin D, Sun X, Wang C (2008) Advances on the cucurbit industry and cucurbit science and technology in China. Chinese Cucurbits Veg. 6:4–9.
Mady M (2009) Effect of some phosphorous compounds as seed soaking materials on winter squash Cucurbita pepo L. plants. J Agric Sci Mansoura Univ. 34: 6747-6759.
Mapsofworld.com (2024) Top 10 pumpkin producing countries. Available at: https://www.mapsofworld.com/world-top-ten/pumpkin-producing-countries.html
Maroyi A (2011) Potential role of traditional vegetables in household food security: A case study from Zimbabwe. African Journal of Agricultural Research 6 (26): 5720- 5728.
Martins S, Ribeiro De Carvalho C, Carnide V (2015) Assessing phenotypic diversity of Cucurbita Portuguese germplasm. The Journal of Agriculture and Forestry 61(1):27-33.
Masika FB, Alicai T, Shimelis H, Ddamulira G, Athman SY, Ipulet P, Andama M, Tugume AK (2022) Pumpkin and watermelon production constraints and management practices in Uganda. CABI Agriculture and Bioscience. 3(1): 39.
Mbogne JT, Youmbi E, Ibouraïman B, Ntsefong GN (2015) Agromorphological, chemical and biochemical characterization of pumpkin (Cucurbita maxima and Cucurbita moschata, Cucurbitaceae) morphotypes cultivated in Cameroun. Research in Plant Sciences. 3(1):12-17.
Men X, Choi S, Han X, Kwon HY, Jang GW, Choi YE, Park SM, Lee OH (2021) Physicochemical, nutritional and functional properties of Cucurbita moschata. Food Science and Biotechnology. 30(2):171–183.
Merrick LC (1990) Systematics and evolution of a domesticated squash, Cucurbita argyrosperma, and its wild and weedy relatives. p. 77-95. In Biology and Utilization of the Cucurbitaceae. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, USA.
Merrick LC (1992) Systematics, evolution, and ethnobotany of a domesticated squash, Cucurbita argyrosperma. PhD Thesis Cornell Univ, Ithaca, USA.
Mohammed SS, Paiko YB, Mann A, Ndamitso MM, Mathew JT, Maaji S (2014) Proximate, mineral and anti-nutritional composition of Cucurbita maxima fruits parts. Nigerian Journal of Chemical Research. 19(1): 37–49.
Morocco World New (2024) Morocco emerges as major pumpkin supplier to the UK. Available at https://www.moroccoworldnews.com/2023/05/355614/morocco-emerges-as-major-pumpkin-supplier-to-the-uk
Muendo KM, Tschirley D (2004) Improving Kenya’s domestic horticultural production and marketing system: Current competitiveness, forces of change, and challenges for the future. Vol. I: Horticultural Production. Working Paper No. 08A/2004.
Murkovic M, Pfannhauser W (2000) Stability of pumpkin seed oil. Eur J Lipid Sci Technol. 102: 607–611.
Musinguzi E, Kikafunda JK, Kiremire BT (2006) Utilization of indigenous food plants in Uganda: A case study of South-Western Uganda. African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development. 6(2): 1-21.
Naik ML, Prasad VM (2016) Genetic variability, heritability and genetic advance in pumpkin (Cucurbita moschata Duch. Ex Poir.). Environment and Ecology. 34(2): 569-572.
Nakazibwe I, Wangalwa R, Olet EA, Kagoro GR (2019) Local knowledge of pumpkin production, performance and utilization systems for value addition avenues from selected agro-ecological zones of Uganda. African Journal of Agricultural Research. 14(32): 1509-1519.
Ndegwa R (2016) Socio-economic factors influencing smallholder pumpkin production, consumption and marketing in Eastern and Central Kenya regions. MSc (Agribusiness Management and Trade), Kenyatta University, Kenya.
Ndoro OF, Madakadze RM, Kageler S, Mashingaidze AB (2007) Indigenous knowledge of the traditional vegetable pumpkin (Cucurbita maxima/moschata) from Zimbabwe. African Journal of Agricultural Research. 2(12): 649-655.
Ndukwu BC, Okoli BE (1992) Studies on Nigeria Cucurbita moschata. Nigeria J Botany. 5:19-26.
Nee M (1990) The domestication of Cucurbita (Cucurbitacea). Econ Bot. 44:3–58.
Noguera FA (2002) Historia natural de Chamela, UNAM.
Ntuli NR, Madakadze RM, Zobolo AM (2016) Ethno-botanical Knowledge on diversity of Cucurbita landraces grown in Northern KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Universal Journal of Plant Science. 4(3): 35-41.
Nyabera LA, Runo SM, Nzuki IW, Amwayi PW (2019) Phenotypic diversity of pumpkins from western Kenya using fruit morphological characters. African Crop Science Journal. 27(3): 427 – 435.
Nyamwamu NC, Jeruto P, Njenga E, Mwamburi L (2023) Production challenges, uses and consumption of pumpkin products by farmers in Kisii Central sub county, Kisii county, Kenya. World Journal of Pharmaceutical Science and Research. 2 (5): 77-88.
OECD (2016) Squashes, pumPkins, zucchinis and gourds (Cucurbita species). p. 84-130. In Safety Assessment of Transgenic Organisms in the Environment. OECD Publishing, Paris, France.
Okoli BE (1984) Wild and cultivated cucurbits in Nigeria. Economic Botany. 38(3): 350-357.
Okoronkwo CM, Okoli EE (2021) Nutritional composition of some accessions of pumpkin (Cucurbita spp) seeds from Abia State, Nigeria. The International Journal of Science and Technology. 9(1): 26-31.
OMAFRA (2011) Pumpkin and squash production, Ontario Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs, Ontario, Canada. Available at: www.omafra.gov.on.ca.
Oluoch MO (2012) Production practices of pumpkins for improved productivity. Scripta Horticulturae. 15:181-189.
Ondigi AN, Toili WW, Ijani ASM, Omuterema SO (2008) Comparative analysis of production practices and utilization of pumpkins (Cucurbita pepo and Cucurbita maxima) by smallholder farmers in the Lake Victoria Basin, East Africa. African Journal of Environmental Science and Technology. 2(9): 296-304.
Paris HS, Brown RN (2005) The genes of pumpkin and squash. HortScience. 40(6): 1620- 1630
Paris HS (2001) History of the cultivar-groups of Cucurbita pepo. Horticultural Reviews. 25: 71-170.
Priori D, Barbieri RL, Mistura CC, Villela JCB (2018) Caracterização morfológica de variedades crioulas de abóboras (Cucurbita maxima) do sul do Brasil. Rev Ceres Viçosa. 65:4–345.
Republic of Kenya (2003) Economic Survey 2003 Nairobi: Government Printer.
Rezig L, Chouaibi M, Msaada K, Hamdi S (2012) Chemical composition and profile characterisation of pumpkin (Cucurbita maxima) seed oil. Industrial Crops and Products. 37:82-87.
Robinson RW, Decker-Walters DS (1997) Cucurbits. Crop Production Science in Horticulture, No. 6, CAB International, Cambridge, United Kingdom
Ruwanthika KOGH, Munasinghe MLAMS, Marapana RAUJ (2023) Overview of Cucurbita spp. (pumpkin) and development of value-added products emphasizing its nutritional and chemical composition. World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews. 18(02): 1215–1226.
Sanjur OI, Piperno DR, Andres TC, Wessel-Beaver L (2002) Phylogenetic relationships among domesticated and wild species of Cucurbita (Cucurbitaceae) inferred from a mitochondrial gene: Implications for crop plant evolution and areas of origin. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 99(1):535-540.
Sharma G, Lakhawat S (2017) Development, quality evaluation and acceptability of pumpkin seed flour incorporated in gravy. J Nutr Food Sci. 7 https:// doi.org/10.4172/2155-9600.1000613
Sharmin AL, Kabir A, Khan S (2022) Utilization of seed from Cucurbita maxima, a pumpkin variety of Bangladesh, converting into refined oil and oilcake. Discover Food. 2:19
Swanepoel JF (2021) Developing a breeding strategy for butternut squash (Cucurbita moschata) in South Africa. Ph.D. Thesis, University of the Free State, Bloemfontein, South Africa
Tanui M (2023) Review on the production constraints of locally cultivated pumpkin (Cucurbita spp.) in Kenya. Journal of Crops, Livestock and Pests Management. 1(1):54-60.
Tunde-Akintunde TY, Ogunlakin GO (2013) Mathematical modelling of drying of pre-treated and untreated pumpkin. Journal of Food Science and Technology. 50(4): 705-713.
Türkmen Ö, Özcan MM, Seymen M, Paksoy M, Uslu N, Fidan S (2017) Physico-chemical properties and fatty acid compositions of some edible pumpkin seed genotypes and oils. J Agroalimentary Proc Technol. 23(4):229–35.
UAA (2018) Pumpkin value chain analysis report. Uganda Agribusiness Alliance. November 2018.
Uduwerella HMIA, Arampath PC, Mudannayake DC (2021) Physicochemical and functional properties of pumpkin seed flour of Cucurbita maxima and Cucurbita moschata species. Tropical Agricultural Research. 32(2): 201-211.
Van der Mheen Sluijer J, Chihande D, Zinanga F (1997) The role of traditional vegetables in Zimbabwe. Report for Community Technology Development Trust Supported by IDRC, Canada.
Vorster HJ, Jansen van Rensburg WS, Van Zijl JJB, Van den Heever E (2002) Germplasm management of African leafy vegetables for the nutritional and food security needs of vulnerable groups in South Africa. Progress Report. ARC-VOPI, Pretoria, South Africa. 130 pp
Whitaker TW, Bemis WP (1975) Origin and evolution of the cultivated Cucurbita. Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club. 102(6):362-368.
Whitaker TW, Davis GN (1962) Cucurbits: Botany, cultivation, and utilization. Interscience Publishers, New York. pp. 162- 170.
Whitaker TW (1974) Cucurbita, handbook of genetics. Boston, USA: Springer: pp. 135-144.
World Data Atlas (2024) Pumpkins production in the World. Available at: https://knoema.com/data/agriculture-indicators-production+pumpkins
Wu T, Zhou J, Zhang Y, Cao J (2007) Characterization and inheritance of a bush-type in tropical pumpkin (Cucurbita moschata Duchesne). Scientia Horticulturae. 114:1–4.
Yang H, Li Y, Wang C, Liang G, Wang J, Liu X (2016) Correlation and regression analysis of taste evaluation and nutrient components in squash. Zhongguo Shucai. 11:25–32.
Zhao J, Liu W, Chen D, Song Y, Zhang Y, Ni Y, Li Q (2015) Physico-chemical and Antioxidant Properties of Different Pumpkin Cultivars Grown in China. Advance Journal of Food Science and Technology. 9(4): 308-316.
Zhao Y, Li X, Zhou J (2009) Worldwide production and diversity characteristics of Cucurbita species. J Inner Mongolia Agric Univ. 4:112–114.
Zhou CL, Mi L, Hu XY, Zhu BH (2017) Evaluation of three pumpkin species: correlation with physicochemical, antioxidant properties and classification using SPME-GC–MS and E-nose methods. Journal of Food Science and Technology. 54(10):3118-3131.